When the President of Panama laid a wreath in memory of those who died protesting the American invasion 60 years ago, the participants of the ceremony were determined.
This month's memorial service came a few days later after President-elect Donald J. Trump China has claimed control of the Panama Canal and said it could use military force to retake the waterway.
In a country still haunted by the events of 1964, the threat escalated when students trying to plant a Panamanian flag in the US-occupied canal zone were met with deadly force.
“My brother did not die in vain,” said Carlos E. Bonilla Caco, whose brother was killed in the demonstrations that fueled the movement to restore Panamanian sovereignty.
The head of the country agreed.
In the foothills near the Panama Canal Authority office, President Jose Raul Mulino was firm. “The Canal is and always will be Panama,” he said.
The statement was a direct challenge to Mr. Trump, who some analysts said has been pressing him to lower tariffs on American goods passing through the Panama Canal. a topic he has recently come up against.
But former U.S. officials warn he may distance himself from Panama as China seeks to woo the country as an ally and expand its influence in Latin America.
Ramon Escobar, who served on the National Security Council until September and is now managing director of Actum, a global consulting firm, said Trump's saber-rattling could weaken the Panamanian government's desire to expand economic ties with the United States.
It “could push them away at a time when there was a real opportunity to bring Panama back into our orbit,” Mr. Escobar said.
The canal was built by the United States at the beginning of the 20th century. however, in 1999, Panama regained full control and has operated the waterway through the Panama Canal Authority ever since.
Today, Panama is of particular strategic importance to China because of the canal, but Beijing is working to expand its influence in Latin America and more broadly among developing countries. It presented itself as a more sympathetic, developing country, presenting itself as an alternative to what it called American hegemony and violence.
With significant investments in port construction worldwide, China is positioning itself to influence global trade and control international activities.
In particular, US officials have raised concerns about two seaports at either end of the Panama Canal operated for decades by Hong Kong-based CK Hutchison Holdings.
Although CK Hutchison is a publicly listed conglomerate whose largest owner is a Hong Kong billionaire family, Beijing can still use its national security laws to compel the company to help with intelligence gathering or military operations.
Panamanian officials claim that China is not taking any risks. They say the channel is open to the public and any Chinese interference would be obvious.
“Anyone can use a satellite to see if they're entering a port,” Panama Canal deputy administrator Ilya Espino de Marotta said in an interview last week. “The canal runs through the country, along national roads, and is visible to the public.”
John Feeley, who served as the US ambassador to Panama from 2015 to 2018, said that during his first administration, Mr. Trump brought up the Panama Canal from within, showing that he saw the waterway as an unfinished business.
In June 2017, Mr. Trump met with then-Panamanian President Juan Carlos Varela and complained that the U.S. Navy was paying too much to cross the canal — about $1 million a year, Mr. Feeley said. (That cost is so low it looks like a rounding error in the Pentagon's budget, analysts say.)
Mr. Feeley, who attended the White House meeting between the leaders, said that while Panama cut ties with Taiwan and aligned itself with Beijing a few weeks ago, Mr. Trump never raised China's presence or possible influence over the canal.
The former ambassador said he tried to draw the White House's attention to China's growing influence in Panama, but the issue never rose to a serious level of alarm.
At the time, China promised to invest in large infrastructure projects in Panama, including a canal bridge, as part of its Belt and Road initiative. Through the initiative, Beijing has increased its global influence by investing in seaports, roads and trains. Kenya for Sri Lanka and most recently Latin America. Critics say Beijing uses the program to use China's leverage to saddle foreign governments with failed projects or unsustainable debt.
Mr. Feeley said he tried to force American companies to participate in such projects to counter China. But the US embassy in Panama City never received White House support to persuade American companies to bid, he said.
“It's not that we lost to China in Latin America; in most cases, we don't even appear on the commercial battlefield,” Mr. Feeley said.
Latin American governments like Panama complain that the United States is often absent when they bid on expensive infrastructure projects, forcing them to rely on others from Europe to China to get the job done.
“The U.S. is not bidding on big infrastructure projects here, but China is,” said Giulia de Sanctis, president of the Panamanian Association of Business Leaders. “Should we tell them now, 'It's time to get out of Panama; “Trump doesn't like you.” So can anyone feel safe investing here?”
The Panama Canal Authority said that while the United States built the canal for military purposes, the Panamanians turned it into a major hub for global trade.
After the US military took it over, authorities invested more than $5 billion to widen the waterway and accommodate giant cargo ships from the United States to East Asia.
“If it wasn't for our investment, the canal would be insignificant on a global trade scale,” said Ms. Espino de Marotta.
“Our neutrality is our greatest business asset and it allows us to be a route for global trade,” he said. The three ports at the Atlantic entrance of the canal are managed separately by companies based in Hong Kong, Taiwan and the United States.
“These ports have been controlled by Hong Kong since 1997 during the first Trump administration,” he added. “Trump didn't say anything about it then, so why now?”
Some Panamanians are reluctant to allow China to invest further in the country. Although Mr. Varela moved Panama's diplomatic recognition from Taiwan to China and struck a series of business deals with Beijing, successive governments have sought to reduce those commitments.
Ramón Martínez, who served as trade minister after Mr. Varela resigned, expressed concern about the political and economic deals the previous administration made with China. He said that he has suspended the free trade agreement being negotiated with China. The bridge over the canal, which China promised to build, has also been suspended.
Mr. Martínez emphasized that the most important ally for Panama will always be the United States.
Hundreds of tourists flocked to the terrace at the Miraflores Visitor Center last week for a bird's-eye view of the Panama Canal. A tall cruise ship jostled through the channel.
“It made me laugh at first, the craziness of it all,” Jacqueline Williams said of Mr. Trump's threats against Panama as she waved at a passing cruise ship. The 67-year-old nonprofit educator was visiting the channel from New York City.
“But then you think: This is a guy who idolizes Putin,” he said, referring to the Russian president. “During the campaign, Trump said he wanted to restore peace to the world, but now he's threatening military expansionism.”
Alex E. Hernández reported from Panama City, Vivian Wang From Beijing and Emiliano Rodriguez Mega From Mexico City.